Can someone provide me with any links or information they may have for my extension history assignment. If you are also able to provide me with any information on historians and historiography on this subject that would be helpful. This will also provide an effective link for anyone looking for information on Genghis Kahn and his impact in europe via military, personality, socio-economic role and his animosity.
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Acknowledged as Genghis Khan (Universal Ruler) of all Mongolian people. He became one of the most supreme military leaders in the world. He subjected China, devastated Khwarezm (Uzbekistan) and became the creator of the Mongol nation and founder of one of the vastest empires in world history which stretched from Northern China to the Black Sea.
The success of the Mongol armies was the result of superior strategy, a highly mobile cavalry, endurance, discipline and a co-ordinated manner of fighting. They succeeded in the only successful winter invasion of Russia when the Mongol army moved with great speed on the frozen rivers - transforming an obstacle into a speedway to surprise the enemy.
The Mongols were not a numerous people, but from the outset Genghis Khan augmented his armies from Turkish tribes until the Turks in the Mongol armies outnumbered the native Monogols. Thus the Turkish language advanced across Asia with the Mongol armies. To communicate across their empire the Mongols established a transcontinental mail service creating thus a crucial bridge between East and West.
After the death of Genghis Khan the Empire was divided between his four sons.
There have been many powerful generals who conquered, expanded their nation’s borders, and influenced millions of people with a clash of culture around the world. Among the most renowed leaders are Alexander the Great spreading Greek Hellenism, Gaius Julius Caesar of the Roman Empire, Hannibal of Catharage with his elephants, Frederick II 'the Great' of Prussia, and Napoleone Buonoparte I of France.
"The 13th century reign of Genghis Kahn was a significant time for the growth of Christianity, which had been introduced as early as the 8th century by Nestorian Christian missionaries from Persia. Genghis Kahn was married to a Christian woman. One of the Khan's daughters-in-law, Sorkaktani, was a Nestorian Christian who became the mother of three great emperors, including Kublai Khan. Another significant Christian influence in the 13th century was the assignment by Pope Innocent the IV of more than a dozen Dominican and Franciscan missionaries to Mongolia."1
After this event, many men from Jamuka’s tribe started to follow Temujin instead of their tribe leader (Price-goff 85). Temujin was starting to become a Kahn, a leader of the Mongol people. Jamuka was understandably jealous, and was pushed over the edge when one of Temujin’s soldiers killed Jamuka’s little brother (Price-goff 86). This event caused former allies and best friends to become enemies, and Temujin fled to northeastern Asia, possibly China, to escape from Jamuka’s wrath. Over next several years, Temujin gained several more followers, and started training his men for battle. The scattered Mongol people were starting to unite and become a single nation. Temujin organized his men into different categories: group of 10 called squads, groups of 100 called squadrons, and group of 1000 called quarans. These groups had precise functions and instructions, and each squad was a specialty unit that had a very specific skill set or task.
One of the emperors of China, hearing news that Temujin was near-by, called for his assistance in driving away raiding nomads, the Tartars. Temujin readily agreed, for these were the same people that had driven his ancestors out of their lands. So, Temujin once again made an alliance with Toghrul, his wife’s father, and Chin, the emperor of a Chinese tribe. They proceeded to massacre the Tartars, leaving “only the young alive”.
At this time, all of the Mongols had chosen one of two leaders: Jamuka or Temujin. With the added alliance of Toghrul, Temujin was now ready to take his vengeance on Jamuka. The first battle was so fierce that it forced Jamuka to retreat. Just when Temujin though he finally had the upper hand, he got word that his ally, Toghrul, had betrayed him. Fearing Temujin’s growing strength, he had planed with Jamuka to assassinate Temujin. However, Temujin heard of the plot and was able to retreat, regroup, and destroy Toghrul’s followers. He went on to defeat Jamuka and had him executed. Temujin was now the leader of all Mongols, the supreme Kahn, Genghis Kahn!
After unifying the Mongols, Genghis Kahn went on the conquer all of China. He breached the Great Wall, laid waste to many cities along the way, and captured the capitol. However, instead of become a tyrannical dictator after capturing the country, Genghis Kahn let the Chinese live had they had, with no pressure to change their customs or persecution to their religion. He saw that it would be more profitable to force the people to pay a light tax then conquering their culture. Additionally, because he was fair in his taxation, the Chinese people were much less likely to revolt.
After conquering the Chinese, Genghis Kahn turned his attention to trade. When the sultan of Persia killed his ambassadors and refused to trade, Genghis Kahn went to war yet again. He conquered almost all of west Asia, so that the Mongol empire covered almost all of Asia. After restoring the trade route in the west, Khan returned to his home in East Asia only to find the people in China had revolted. After stopping the revolt, Genghis Kahn was finally returning home. However, while on his horse, he became ill and died, ending the reign of one of the greatest rulers ever.
Genghis Kahn was one of the most feared leaders of his time, and Mongolia reached levels of wealth it had never achieved, and never would achieve again. Genghis Kahn lived to about 70 years of age and died in August, 1227, one of Mongolia’s greatest heroes.
Genghis Khan was able to conquer a wide area, because of his army’s equipment advantages and training. He also had two outstanding generals, Jebei Noyan and Subotai "the Valiant", that turned the wars in his favor.
Archers carried 2 - 4 bows, with 60-400 arrows of various types (long and short distance, limb cutters etc) depending on length of campaign (and what book you're reading). Army replacements were often just told to find the army and report for duty, even with the army over 2000 miles away. Troops often traveled over 60 miles a day.
Temüjin understood at this point that in order to survive, one should have powerful allies and unity. Through skillful diplomacy he succeeded in uniting the tribes and gradually drove away his opponents. Their main opponents were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north and the Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin and his advisors had united together the other steppe people. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yasa code, he promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible conflicts.
Genghis Khan began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother). Genghis's ally was Toghril, Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars (1202). This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists and succeeded to the title of Wang Khan. Toghrul possibly feared the increasing power and charisma of Temüjin among the Mongol populace and adopted an obstinate attitude towards collaboration. One of the ruptures later between Toghrul and Temüjin was the refusal of Toghrul to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This act probably led to the rupture and the prelude of the war between both factions. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, Temüjin's blood brother or anda, and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions between Toghrul and Jamuka, as well as the desertion of many clans that fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. This paved the way for fall and extinction of Kerait tribe. The next threat that directly competed with Temüjin was the Naimans, with whom Jamuka and his followers had taken refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again did voluntarily side with Temüjin. In 1201, a Khuriltai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including the well-known Subutai, Jelme's younger brother, and Qubilai. After several battles, Jamuka was finally captured in 1206 after several shepherds captured him and turned him over to Temüjin. Temüjin offered his friendship again to Jamuka and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuka refused the generous offer and asked for noble death, which was granted to him. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with Naimans were defeated by Subedei, member of the personal guard of Temüjin who would later become the greatest commander in the service of the Khan. In 1202 the victory over the Merkits put Temüjin in a position to defeat the Tatars and avenge his father's death. In 1203 Temüjin attacked the Keraits and in 1204 attacked the Naimans, finally paving the way to an unchallenged rule.
Temüjin to Genghis Khan
Temüjin's borders were threatened to the south by the Jin, who then ruled North China, and to the west by the Xia. Temüjin organized his people to prepare for future conflicts, especially with the Jin. The Jurchen had grown uncomfortable with the newly-unified Mongols. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and it is possible that they feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods. Genghis also was eager to take revenge against the Jins for their long periods of subjugation of the Mongols. The Jins were known to stir up conflicts between Mongol tribes and even had executed some Mongol Khans.
Temüjin managed to unite the tribes under a single system by 1206, using his personal charisma, and strong will. It was a monumental feat for the Mongols, who had a long history of internecine, dispute and economic hardship. At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the name Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father. This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes.
Genghis already was about 40 years old when he became Khan and began his campaign outward. At the time of the Khuriltai in 1206, when Genghis obtained his title, the Mongols were involved in a dispute with the Tangut Empire of Western Xia, which demanded tribute from them. Genghis led the Mongols against Xi Xia, and conquered the empire despite initial difficulties in defeating its well-defended cities. By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord. In 1211, Genghis set about bringing the Nuzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion, in order to prevent them from challenging the Mongols for territory and resources. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng.
The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts. The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarizmid Empire. While Genghis was busy with the campaign in Persia, Tangut and Jin formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis prepared for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance.
In 1226, Genghis began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.
In 1227, Genghis attacked the Tangut capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.
The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, beginning in 1038. Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis executed the emperor and his family.
By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death.
Central Asia
Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow"), against Kuchlug. An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country. Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar. He was captured and executed and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis. By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and it adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.
Talented military generals and strategists of Genghis, such as Subutai and Jebe, played considerable roles in the practicalities of the war, using hands-on approaches. These generals were purely chosen as part of a meritocracy, as none of them were from the direct family line of Genghis. Genghis did not as a general rule trust his relatives on commanding large number of troops for larger campaigns, and so he did not allow them to command significant numbers of soldiers.
Middle East
After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia, governed by ShahAla ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia.
However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The governor refused later to pay to repayment by the sacking and murder of its members. This and the ambitions of Khwarizm to take control of the commercial routes between the East and the West compelled Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Empire.
After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Choji led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of Khwarzemia to form a pincer attack with the first division on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction. The Shah's army, who were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and the Shah's decision in dividing his army into small groups concentrated in various cities, were decisive factors in Khwarezmia's defeats. The Shah's cowardly attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in destroying Khwarizm.
He selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted general, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.
The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city he killed many of the inhabitants, and executed Governor Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the insult.
In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender, and killed himself when he was cornered. By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated.
After Samarkand fell, Bujara became the capital of Jorezm, while two of their generals advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir of Shah Jalal Al-Din, a brilliant strategist and supported enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again splitted his forces, and Jorezm was forced to flee Bujara after a devastating defeat.
The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his general Subedei, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia.
These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.
Destruction and effects on civilians
Genghis preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight, but was merciless if he encountered any resistance: in such cases he would mercilessly attack the population of the resisting cities leaving engineers, submitted troops, artists, spies and human shields to survive. There also were instances of mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China, where the vast majority of the populations had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers.
Genghis' conquests were characterized by wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale and radically changes in the demographics of Asia. Over much of Central Asia Indo-European Persian-speakers were replaced by Turkic speakers. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population. Before the Mongol invasion, China had 80 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Genghis and his forces is unclear.
Politics and economics
Main article: Organization of state under Genghis Khan
The Mongol Empire was tolerant of the beliefs of its people, provided that they did not resist, and often let conquered nations keep local rulers and worship their own religions. Genghis instituted a meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people.
The Mongols were ruled by the code of Great Yassa created by Genghis, of which no complete copy survives today. Generally, it is thought that the Mongol Empire also was friendly to outside trade along the Silk Road, although the Mongol conquests led to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia. Taxes were heavy, and conquered people were used as forced labor.
Modern Mongolian historians claim that towards the end of his life, Genghis attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.
Temüjin was illiterate when he was young, but he learned to read Taoist sermons later in his life. He brought tutors with him to teach his children and himself to read and write. Genghis Khan's policy of unrestricted trade and communication brought up the concept of Pax Mongolica. As long as traders and messengers did nothing to damage the Mongol Empire, they were given peace for trade and information.
Genghis' armies generally were able to best their enemies in the 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy, mobility, discipline and military intelligence. Genghis developed a well-organized army. He refused to divide his troops into different ethnic enclaves, instead creating a sense of unity, and he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his mounted archers to attack their enemies on several fronts at once.
The Mongol armies were known for their strict discipline, good weapons and the agility when mounted on their fast and tough horses. Their primary weapons were arrows and only a special reflex bow with extreme acceleration strength. They always carried several bows and many arrows with forged iron point into battle. The arrows shot by these reflex bows had enormous striking power, which allowed the arrows to pierce, among other things, chain mails. An experienced rider can hit a target with this deadly weapon in the stretched gallop from a distance of 300 meters. In addition to bows and arrows, Mongol riders also carry swords, spears or maces which allow them to engage in hand-to-hand combat after shooting their arrows.
Another very important aspect in the military organization of Genghis Kan is the communications facet, to which he himself dedicated a special attention. He constructed Yams or supply points for his messengers with food, drinks and spare horses. Genghis Khan never embarked in a campaign without collecting all the information that he could get from his enemy.
In his last campaign against the Tangut Empire, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a hidden knife and that he never recovered.
It is alleged that Genghis asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. According to (dubious) legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. In October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and that may make it possible to find his burial site. However, skeptics find in the discovery evidence of a Mongol palace, and by Mongol tradition it is unlikely that Genghis would be buried near one of his palaces. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find. Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted.
Genghis left behind an army of more than 129,000 men. 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. This was done because by tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Four of his sons, beside Tolui, received armies of 4000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each.
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and grandsons into several Khanates. These Khanates were sub territories and the Khans of these Khanates were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was Ögedei Khan after Genghis Khan's death. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan's death, his territory was further split up into the Western White Horde and the Eastern Blue Horde. The Blue Horde under the Genghis Khan's grandson Batu attacked Europe and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death. In 1382, these two Khanates were combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or the Golden Horde.
Genghis Khan's second son, Chagadai, was given Central Asia and northern Iran. This Khanate is known as Khanate of Chagadai. Tolui, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland as per Mongol custom, and Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China. Hulegu, son of Tolui and brother of Kublai Khan, established himself in the former Khwarezmid Empire as the Khan of the Il-Khanate.
Personality
It is not entirely clear what Genghis was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's nomadic way of life, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa ( information on Yasa would be highly helpful) teachings, and to refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure.
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Acknowledged as Genghis Khan (Universal Ruler) of all Mongolian people. He became one of the most supreme military leaders in the world. He subjected China, devastated Khwarezm (Uzbekistan) and became the creator of the Mongol nation and founder of one of the vastest empires in world history which stretched from Northern China to the Black Sea.
The success of the Mongol armies was the result of superior strategy, a highly mobile cavalry, endurance, discipline and a co-ordinated manner of fighting. They succeeded in the only successful winter invasion of Russia when the Mongol army moved with great speed on the frozen rivers - transforming an obstacle into a speedway to surprise the enemy.
The Mongols were not a numerous people, but from the outset Genghis Khan augmented his armies from Turkish tribes until the Turks in the Mongol armies outnumbered the native Monogols. Thus the Turkish language advanced across Asia with the Mongol armies. To communicate across their empire the Mongols established a transcontinental mail service creating thus a crucial bridge between East and West.
After the death of Genghis Khan the Empire was divided between his four sons.
There have been many powerful generals who conquered, expanded their nation’s borders, and influenced millions of people with a clash of culture around the world. Among the most renowed leaders are Alexander the Great spreading Greek Hellenism, Gaius Julius Caesar of the Roman Empire, Hannibal of Catharage with his elephants, Frederick II 'the Great' of Prussia, and Napoleone Buonoparte I of France.
"The 13th century reign of Genghis Kahn was a significant time for the growth of Christianity, which had been introduced as early as the 8th century by Nestorian Christian missionaries from Persia. Genghis Kahn was married to a Christian woman. One of the Khan's daughters-in-law, Sorkaktani, was a Nestorian Christian who became the mother of three great emperors, including Kublai Khan. Another significant Christian influence in the 13th century was the assignment by Pope Innocent the IV of more than a dozen Dominican and Franciscan missionaries to Mongolia."1
After this event, many men from Jamuka’s tribe started to follow Temujin instead of their tribe leader (Price-goff 85). Temujin was starting to become a Kahn, a leader of the Mongol people. Jamuka was understandably jealous, and was pushed over the edge when one of Temujin’s soldiers killed Jamuka’s little brother (Price-goff 86). This event caused former allies and best friends to become enemies, and Temujin fled to northeastern Asia, possibly China, to escape from Jamuka’s wrath. Over next several years, Temujin gained several more followers, and started training his men for battle. The scattered Mongol people were starting to unite and become a single nation. Temujin organized his men into different categories: group of 10 called squads, groups of 100 called squadrons, and group of 1000 called quarans. These groups had precise functions and instructions, and each squad was a specialty unit that had a very specific skill set or task.
One of the emperors of China, hearing news that Temujin was near-by, called for his assistance in driving away raiding nomads, the Tartars. Temujin readily agreed, for these were the same people that had driven his ancestors out of their lands. So, Temujin once again made an alliance with Toghrul, his wife’s father, and Chin, the emperor of a Chinese tribe. They proceeded to massacre the Tartars, leaving “only the young alive”.
At this time, all of the Mongols had chosen one of two leaders: Jamuka or Temujin. With the added alliance of Toghrul, Temujin was now ready to take his vengeance on Jamuka. The first battle was so fierce that it forced Jamuka to retreat. Just when Temujin though he finally had the upper hand, he got word that his ally, Toghrul, had betrayed him. Fearing Temujin’s growing strength, he had planed with Jamuka to assassinate Temujin. However, Temujin heard of the plot and was able to retreat, regroup, and destroy Toghrul’s followers. He went on to defeat Jamuka and had him executed. Temujin was now the leader of all Mongols, the supreme Kahn, Genghis Kahn!
After unifying the Mongols, Genghis Kahn went on the conquer all of China. He breached the Great Wall, laid waste to many cities along the way, and captured the capitol. However, instead of become a tyrannical dictator after capturing the country, Genghis Kahn let the Chinese live had they had, with no pressure to change their customs or persecution to their religion. He saw that it would be more profitable to force the people to pay a light tax then conquering their culture. Additionally, because he was fair in his taxation, the Chinese people were much less likely to revolt.
After conquering the Chinese, Genghis Kahn turned his attention to trade. When the sultan of Persia killed his ambassadors and refused to trade, Genghis Kahn went to war yet again. He conquered almost all of west Asia, so that the Mongol empire covered almost all of Asia. After restoring the trade route in the west, Khan returned to his home in East Asia only to find the people in China had revolted. After stopping the revolt, Genghis Kahn was finally returning home. However, while on his horse, he became ill and died, ending the reign of one of the greatest rulers ever.
Genghis Kahn was one of the most feared leaders of his time, and Mongolia reached levels of wealth it had never achieved, and never would achieve again. Genghis Kahn lived to about 70 years of age and died in August, 1227, one of Mongolia’s greatest heroes.
Genghis Khan was able to conquer a wide area, because of his army’s equipment advantages and training. He also had two outstanding generals, Jebei Noyan and Subotai "the Valiant", that turned the wars in his favor.
Archers carried 2 - 4 bows, with 60-400 arrows of various types (long and short distance, limb cutters etc) depending on length of campaign (and what book you're reading). Army replacements were often just told to find the army and report for duty, even with the army over 2000 miles away. Troops often traveled over 60 miles a day.
Temüjin understood at this point that in order to survive, one should have powerful allies and unity. Through skillful diplomacy he succeeded in uniting the tribes and gradually drove away his opponents. Their main opponents were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north and the Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin and his advisors had united together the other steppe people. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yasa code, he promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible conflicts.
Genghis Khan began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother). Genghis's ally was Toghril, Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars (1202). This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists and succeeded to the title of Wang Khan. Toghrul possibly feared the increasing power and charisma of Temüjin among the Mongol populace and adopted an obstinate attitude towards collaboration. One of the ruptures later between Toghrul and Temüjin was the refusal of Toghrul to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This act probably led to the rupture and the prelude of the war between both factions. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, Temüjin's blood brother or anda, and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions between Toghrul and Jamuka, as well as the desertion of many clans that fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. This paved the way for fall and extinction of Kerait tribe. The next threat that directly competed with Temüjin was the Naimans, with whom Jamuka and his followers had taken refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again did voluntarily side with Temüjin. In 1201, a Khuriltai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including the well-known Subutai, Jelme's younger brother, and Qubilai. After several battles, Jamuka was finally captured in 1206 after several shepherds captured him and turned him over to Temüjin. Temüjin offered his friendship again to Jamuka and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuka refused the generous offer and asked for noble death, which was granted to him. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with Naimans were defeated by Subedei, member of the personal guard of Temüjin who would later become the greatest commander in the service of the Khan. In 1202 the victory over the Merkits put Temüjin in a position to defeat the Tatars and avenge his father's death. In 1203 Temüjin attacked the Keraits and in 1204 attacked the Naimans, finally paving the way to an unchallenged rule.
Temüjin to Genghis Khan
Temüjin's borders were threatened to the south by the Jin, who then ruled North China, and to the west by the Xia. Temüjin organized his people to prepare for future conflicts, especially with the Jin. The Jurchen had grown uncomfortable with the newly-unified Mongols. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and it is possible that they feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods. Genghis also was eager to take revenge against the Jins for their long periods of subjugation of the Mongols. The Jins were known to stir up conflicts between Mongol tribes and even had executed some Mongol Khans.
Temüjin managed to unite the tribes under a single system by 1206, using his personal charisma, and strong will. It was a monumental feat for the Mongols, who had a long history of internecine, dispute and economic hardship. At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the name Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father. This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes.
Genghis already was about 40 years old when he became Khan and began his campaign outward. At the time of the Khuriltai in 1206, when Genghis obtained his title, the Mongols were involved in a dispute with the Tangut Empire of Western Xia, which demanded tribute from them. Genghis led the Mongols against Xi Xia, and conquered the empire despite initial difficulties in defeating its well-defended cities. By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord. In 1211, Genghis set about bringing the Nuzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion, in order to prevent them from challenging the Mongols for territory and resources. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng.
The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts. The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarizmid Empire. While Genghis was busy with the campaign in Persia, Tangut and Jin formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis prepared for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance.
In 1226, Genghis began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.
In 1227, Genghis attacked the Tangut capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.
The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, beginning in 1038. Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis executed the emperor and his family.
By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death.
Central Asia
Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow"), against Kuchlug. An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country. Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar. He was captured and executed and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis. By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and it adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.
Talented military generals and strategists of Genghis, such as Subutai and Jebe, played considerable roles in the practicalities of the war, using hands-on approaches. These generals were purely chosen as part of a meritocracy, as none of them were from the direct family line of Genghis. Genghis did not as a general rule trust his relatives on commanding large number of troops for larger campaigns, and so he did not allow them to command significant numbers of soldiers.
Middle East
After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia, governed by ShahAla ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia.
However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The governor refused later to pay to repayment by the sacking and murder of its members. This and the ambitions of Khwarizm to take control of the commercial routes between the East and the West compelled Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Empire.
After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Choji led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of Khwarzemia to form a pincer attack with the first division on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction. The Shah's army, who were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and the Shah's decision in dividing his army into small groups concentrated in various cities, were decisive factors in Khwarezmia's defeats. The Shah's cowardly attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in destroying Khwarizm.
He selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted general, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.
The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city he killed many of the inhabitants, and executed Governor Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the insult.
In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender, and killed himself when he was cornered. By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated.
After Samarkand fell, Bujara became the capital of Jorezm, while two of their generals advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir of Shah Jalal Al-Din, a brilliant strategist and supported enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again splitted his forces, and Jorezm was forced to flee Bujara after a devastating defeat.
The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his general Subedei, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia.
These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.
Destruction and effects on civilians
Genghis preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight, but was merciless if he encountered any resistance: in such cases he would mercilessly attack the population of the resisting cities leaving engineers, submitted troops, artists, spies and human shields to survive. There also were instances of mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China, where the vast majority of the populations had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers.
Genghis' conquests were characterized by wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale and radically changes in the demographics of Asia. Over much of Central Asia Indo-European Persian-speakers were replaced by Turkic speakers. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population. Before the Mongol invasion, China had 80 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Genghis and his forces is unclear.
Politics and economics
Main article: Organization of state under Genghis Khan
The Mongol Empire was tolerant of the beliefs of its people, provided that they did not resist, and often let conquered nations keep local rulers and worship their own religions. Genghis instituted a meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people.
The Mongols were ruled by the code of Great Yassa created by Genghis, of which no complete copy survives today. Generally, it is thought that the Mongol Empire also was friendly to outside trade along the Silk Road, although the Mongol conquests led to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia. Taxes were heavy, and conquered people were used as forced labor.
Modern Mongolian historians claim that towards the end of his life, Genghis attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.
Temüjin was illiterate when he was young, but he learned to read Taoist sermons later in his life. He brought tutors with him to teach his children and himself to read and write. Genghis Khan's policy of unrestricted trade and communication brought up the concept of Pax Mongolica. As long as traders and messengers did nothing to damage the Mongol Empire, they were given peace for trade and information.
Genghis' armies generally were able to best their enemies in the 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy, mobility, discipline and military intelligence. Genghis developed a well-organized army. He refused to divide his troops into different ethnic enclaves, instead creating a sense of unity, and he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his mounted archers to attack their enemies on several fronts at once.
The Mongol armies were known for their strict discipline, good weapons and the agility when mounted on their fast and tough horses. Their primary weapons were arrows and only a special reflex bow with extreme acceleration strength. They always carried several bows and many arrows with forged iron point into battle. The arrows shot by these reflex bows had enormous striking power, which allowed the arrows to pierce, among other things, chain mails. An experienced rider can hit a target with this deadly weapon in the stretched gallop from a distance of 300 meters. In addition to bows and arrows, Mongol riders also carry swords, spears or maces which allow them to engage in hand-to-hand combat after shooting their arrows.
Another very important aspect in the military organization of Genghis Kan is the communications facet, to which he himself dedicated a special attention. He constructed Yams or supply points for his messengers with food, drinks and spare horses. Genghis Khan never embarked in a campaign without collecting all the information that he could get from his enemy.
In his last campaign against the Tangut Empire, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a hidden knife and that he never recovered.
It is alleged that Genghis asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. According to (dubious) legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. In October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and that may make it possible to find his burial site. However, skeptics find in the discovery evidence of a Mongol palace, and by Mongol tradition it is unlikely that Genghis would be buried near one of his palaces. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find. Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted.
Genghis left behind an army of more than 129,000 men. 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. This was done because by tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Four of his sons, beside Tolui, received armies of 4000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each.
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and grandsons into several Khanates. These Khanates were sub territories and the Khans of these Khanates were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was Ögedei Khan after Genghis Khan's death. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan's death, his territory was further split up into the Western White Horde and the Eastern Blue Horde. The Blue Horde under the Genghis Khan's grandson Batu attacked Europe and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death. In 1382, these two Khanates were combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or the Golden Horde.
Genghis Khan's second son, Chagadai, was given Central Asia and northern Iran. This Khanate is known as Khanate of Chagadai. Tolui, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland as per Mongol custom, and Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China. Hulegu, son of Tolui and brother of Kublai Khan, established himself in the former Khwarezmid Empire as the Khan of the Il-Khanate.
Personality
It is not entirely clear what Genghis was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's nomadic way of life, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa ( information on Yasa would be highly helpful) teachings, and to refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure.
